Research Doctorate Programs

Research Doctorate Programs

The research doctorate is the highest earned academic degree in U.S. postsecondary education. It is always awarded for independent research at a professional level in either academic disciplines or professional fields. Research doctorates earned at accredited institutions are not awarded merely for completing coursework, professional preparation, or for passing examinations.

Content of Doctoral Studies

Doctoral studies may begin after completion of a bachelor's, master's, or first professional degree. In some subjects it is the custom to begin a program leading eventually to the doctorate immediately upon receiving a bachelor's or first professional degree, while in others it is still customary to earn a master's degree before enrolling for a doctorate.

Regardless of the entry point, doctoral studies involve three stages of academic work. The first stage involves the completion of preliminary course, seminar, and laboratory studies and the passing of a battery of written examinations, usually called "written" or "comprehensives." If successful at this stage the student is permitted to proceed with doctoral studies, called advancement to candidacy. If not, he or she is withdrawn from the program, in some cases with the possibility of earning a master's degree. The first stage is often longer for students that do not already possess a higher degree.

The second stage consists of a set of advanced seminars and consortia during which the student selects a subject for the dissertation, forms a dissertation committee, and designs his or her research. American educators call the doctoral thesis a dissertation to distinguish it from lesser theses. The dissertation committee consists of usually 3-5 senior faculty in the student's research field, including his or her academic adviser. They do not necessarily have to be from the student's own university. Once the student has developed and presented a research design acceptable to his or her adviser and committee, the independent research phases begins.

Independent research and writing the dissertation can take anywhere from one to several years depending upon the topic selected and the research work necessary to prepare the dissertation. When the academic adviser is convinced that the dissertation is of an acceptable standard to put before the dissertation committee, the student delivers it to all committee members and is scheduled for the dissertation defense. The defense consists of an oral examination in depth before the committee and invited guests during which the student must establish mastery of the subject matter, explain and justify his or her research findings, and answer all questions put by the committee. A successful defense results in the award of the degree.

Some doctoral programs may include additional requirements such as fieldwork or practical or evidence of teaching experience and skills. All doctoral programs require that certain technical skills be mastered in the first stage, including foreign languages (ancient or modern), mathematical and computer skills, or other specialized professional competencies relevant to the field being studied.

Time to Degree

The number of years required to complete a U.S. research doctorate vary by subject as well as by whether the student pauses during the program or continues straight through to the end. The median time lapse from earning a bachelor's degree to earning a research doctorate, for students remaining registered, is (in academic years):

For academic disciplines:

Humanities--Nearly 8 and one-half years;

Life Sciences--Seven years;

Mathematics--Nearly 7 years;

Physical Sciences--Nearly 7 years;

Social Sciences/Psychology--Seven and one-half years;

and for professional and applied fields:

Business and Management--Over 7 years;

Education--Over 8 years;

Engineering--About 6 and one-half years; and

Other Professions--Over 8 years.

The median number of registered years for all fields is just over 7 years. This means that, when added to the average of 4-5 years for a bachelor's degree, U.S. citizens who earn an American research doctorate have spent around 11 or more academic years in school as full-time students and researchers. During that time they are in structured and supervised programs, not on their own, and they do not benefit from government stipends or from any legal privileges permitting them to enjoy protected student status.

Recognized Research Doctorates

The best-known research doctorate title awarded in the United States is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). However, there are a number of other doctoral titles that enjoy the same status and represent variants of the Ph.D. within certain fields. All of them have similar content requirements.

The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) recognizes the following degrees as equivalent to the Ph.D.:

• Doctor of Architecture (D.Arch.)
• Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.)
• Doctor of Criminal Justice (D.C.J.)
• Doctor of Criminology (D.Crim.)
• Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng.)
• Doctor of Engineering Science (D.E.Sc./Sc.D.E.)
• Doctor of Fine Arts (D.F.A.)
• Doctor of Hebrew Literature/Letters (D.H.L.)
• Doctor of Hebrew Studies (D.H.S.)
• Doctor of Library Science (D.L.S.)
• Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.)
• Doctor of Ministry (D.Min./D.M.)
• Doctor of Music Ministry (D.M.M.)
• Doctor of Nursing Science (D.N.Sc.)
• Doctor of Physical Education (D.P.E.)
• Doctor of Professional Studies (D.P.S.)
• Doctor of Religious Education (D.R.E.)
• Doctor of Science (D.Sc./Sc.D.)
• Doctor of Science and Hygiene (D.Sc.H.)
• Doctor of Sacred Music (D.S.M.)
• Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W.)
• Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D.)
• Doctor of the Science of Law (L.Sc.D.)

• Doctor of Arts (D.A.)
• Doctor of Applied Science (D.A.S.)
• Doctor of Chemistry (D.Chem.)
• Doctor of Comparative/Civil Law (D.C.L.)
• Doctor of Environment (D.Env.)
• Doctor of Forestry (D.F.)
• Doctor of Geological Science (D.G.S.)
• Doctor of Health and Safety (D.H.S.)
• Doctor of Industrial Technology (D.I.T.)
• Doctor of Music (D.M.)
• Doctor of Musical Education (D.M.E.)
• Doctor of Modern Languages (D.M.L.)
• Doctor of Medical Science (D.M.Sc.)
• Doctor of Public Administration (D.P.H.)
• Doctor of Public Health (D.P.H.)
• Doctor of Design (Dr.DES.)
• Doctor of Recreation (D.Rec./D.R.)
• Doctor of Science in Dentistry (D.Sc.D.)
• Doctor of Science in Veterinary Medicine (D.Sc.V.M.)
• Doctor of Social Science (D.S.Sc.)
• Doctor of Education (Ed.D.)
• Doctor of Juristic Science (J.S.D.)
• Doctor of Rehabilitation (Rh.D.)
• Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D.)

You should remember that professional doctoral degrees are not research doctorates in those fields. The research doctorate in all such fields is either the Ph.D. or one of the related research doctorates named in the list immediately above. As with master's degrees, the institution awarding the doctorate has considerable discretion as to the titles it uses for degrees, and thus institutional nomenclature may differ even in the same subject

Article excerpted from the U.S. Network for Education Information.

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Professional Studies: Law, Medicine, Theology

General Characteristics

Some professional fields of study require the student to first complete a undergraduate degree program before he or she can be admitted. These field include Chiropractic, Dentistry, Law, Medicine (Allopathic, including surgery), Optometry, Osteopathy, Pharmacy, Podiatry, Theology (ordination qualifications), and Veterinary Medicine. There are many more professional fields of study in the United States, but those listed here are unique in that they are not offered at the undergraduate degree level.

It is also important to recognize that first-professional degrees in these fields are first degrees, not graduate research degrees. Several of the degree titles in this group of subjects incorporate the term "Doctor," but they are not research doctorates and not equivalent to the Ph.D. Master's degrees and research doctorates in these fields of study are awarded, but they have different names and students enroll in those programs after having earned a first-professional degree.

As with many other education systems, student competition to enter many first-professional programs is fierce and admissions is frequently restricted to only the most qualified candidates. While the United States does not operate a numerus clausus system, the relevant professional associations, state authorities, and religious authorities (in theology) are actively concerned to maintain the quality of professional studies and balance the number of students admitted and graduated, and the number of accredited programs, with the economic and social need for professional services. Foreign applicants in some programs may discover that study places allocated for non-U.S. citizens are very few and that the chances of qualifying to remain in the United States and practice are slim at best.

Content of Studies

First-professional degree programs generally involve lecture and (in health fields) laboratory courses, exercises in applied research, and supervised clinical practica or fieldwork. Most programs include an initial classroom and/or laboratory instruction period last one or two years followed by a intensive period mixing advanced coursework and seminars with supervised clinical experience and projects. The clinical experiences are intended to be educational in content and academic credit is earned for them. Clinical work is directly related to the profession for which the student is preparing, and thus may take place in a teaching hospital, legal services clinic, or religious congregation.

Professional Faculty

First-professional faculty are generally divided into two groups. Full-time academic faculty administer the program, advise students, teach the classroom and laboratory courses, and lead seminars and discussion groups. Clinical experiences are usually supervised by part-time adjunct faculty who are leading professional practitioners in the local community selected for their teaching skill, experience, and expertise.

Student Evaluations

Student progress in first-professional programs is graded on examinations and other academic assignments, but it is also based on continuous evaluation of the individual as a developing professional and includes attention to such factors as attitude, interpersonal behavior, professional ethics, and clinical skills. The goal of a first-professional program is primarily to prepare a competent practicing member of a profession, and only secondarily to produce an academic researcher or theoretician (and then only if a particular program is designed to produce research specialists).

Specialization

U.S. first-professional programs either do not permit specialization at all or do so only in the advanced or clinical phase of study. Programs in law and theology provide only limited opportunity for specialization at the first-professional level because the professional licensing of attorneys and the ordination of clergy in the United States do not differentiate specialties. Health-related programs allow more specialization, but most of that is accomplished during the clinical phases of the programs and during the supervised residencies that follow graduation. First-professional programs may offer broad options for students, such as preparation for research or practice careers, but rarely actual major concentrations.

Degrees Awarded

The recognized first-professional degrees are listed below together with the relevant field of study and the usual duration of accredited programs.

Chiropractic--Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C. or D.C.M.), a curriculum divided into "straight" or "progressive" chiropractic depending upon the philosophy of the institution, generally requiring 3 academic years of full-time study after 2 years or more of study at the associate or bachelor's degree level.

Dentistry--Doctor of Dental Science (D.D.S.) or Doctor of Medical Dentistry (D.M.D.), in either case a standard curriculum that generally requires 4 academic years of full-time study following either a bachelor's degree or early admission after 3 years of undergraduate study. It may be followed by an optional clinical specialization during an ensuing residency year or advanced research studies.

Law--Juris Doctor (J.D.), a standard curriculum that generally requires 3 academic years of full-time study following a bachelor's degree. The curriculum is unspecialized; all students follow a similar program regardless of their career intentions. Specialization occurs later, either through apprenticeship and job-related training or advanced study.

Medicine--Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), a standard allopathic medical curriculum generally requiring 4 academic years of full-time study following either a bachelor's degree or early admission after 3 years of undergraduate study. While the M.D. degree is awarded at the end of 4 years, virtually all students take a subsequent year of clinical internship followed by a supervised residency lasting 1-8 years (depending on the specialty) which is required for medical board certification.

Optometry--Doctor of Optometry (O.D.), a standard curriculum generally requiring 4 academic years of full-time study following 2 or more years of undergraduate study.

Osteopathy--Doctor of Ostepathy or Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.), a standard curriculum generally requiring 4 academic years of full-time study following either a bachelor's degree or early admission after 3 years of undergraduate study. (NOTE: Holders of the D.O. degree generally take a year of clinical internship and are eligible for some medical residencies.)

Pharmacy--Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.), a standard curriculum generally requiring either 2 academic years of full-time study following a bachelor's degree or 4 years of study following transfer to a pharmacy program after 2 years of undergraduate study.

Podiatry--Doctor of Podiatry (D.P., Pod.D.) or Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.), in either case a standard curriculum generally requiring 4 academic years of full-time study following 2 or more years of undergraduate study.

Theology--Master of Divinity (M.Div.) or Hebrew Letters (M.H.L.), Rav, usually standard curricula prescribed by the ordaining religious community and generally requiring 2-3 academic years of full-time study following a bachelor's degree. (NOTE: Only one U.S. institution, the Catholic University of America, holds a Pontifical charter and is authorized to award Papal degrees such as the Licentiate (Lic.).)

Veterinary Medicine--Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.), a standard curriculum generally requiring 4 academic years of full-time study following either a bachelor's degree or early admission after 3 years of undergraduate study. It may be followed by an optional year or more of clinical specialization.

The program lengths indicated may vary due to the practice of permitting well-prepared undergraduate students who meet all admissions requirements except that of holding an undergraduate degree to begin their professional studies while still undergraduates or without actually completing the bachelor's degree. Many professional programs have admissions agreements with undergraduate institutions that permit such options in exceptional cases. Often the bachelor's degree and the professional degree are both awarded at the completion of such dual programs.

In other cases, the professional school itself offers a complete program of study that encompasses both the preliminary undergraduate work and the advanced professional study, or admits students into the professional program after a prescribed number of credits have been earned, and awards one degree (the first-professional degree) at the end of the entire program.

Article excerpted from the U.S. Network for Education Information.

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Quality Education MBA

Intellectual and Monetary Success

"The good news for students is that there is a quality business program that can meet the needs of almost anyone in the world." That is according to Dan LeClair who, as the chief knowledge officer of the leading accreditor of business schools, should know. According to LeClair, "the most important development in business education has been the incredible diversity that has emerged from an unprecedented expansion in global demand."

Prospective business students have a wide array of program options. To earn an MBA, for example, students can choose from programs that are full-time, part-time, geared toward executives, completely or partially online, and more. There are MBAs for those with management experience or without and there are alternatives that combine business with study for other professional degrees, such as law and medicine. Prospective students can choose among many concentrations as part of their MBA or select from a growing number of more specialized master's programs. MBA programs are available in almost every country in the world with costs ranging from less than 10,000 USD to more than 100,000 USD. The MBA has become the most recognized degree in the world.

Invest in Your Career: Earning an MBA can pay off handsomely according to a series of studies by the Graduate Management Admission Council® (GMAC). Recruiters say that 2007 MBA graduates can expect to earn a base salary of 85,000 USD, which exceeds other graduate program salaries by almost 20% and undergraduate salaries by nearly 100%. Among schools accredited by AACSB International, GMAC studies have shown the annual return on investment across all programs to be nearly 20% and, for part-time programs, which are generally less costly, the annual return on investment is a handsome 68%.

Evaluate Your Needs and Interests: The needs, interests, and demands of future business students vary considerably depending on culture, educational background, family circumstances, location, financial capability, and aspirations. When faced with such a wide range of choices, future business students should begin by carefully evaluating their objectives, as well as constraints. For example, it might make more sense for some students to pursue an MBA on a part-time basis, rather than quit their jobs to relocate to a residential program at a top-ranked school. For others who are interested in making a career transition and don't mind relocating to study, it might make more sense to pursue an MBA as a full-time student.

It's Not Just About You: Despite the individual payoff from a business education, prospective students should be advised that it is not just about salaries and career advancement. The real value of an MBA comes from the business leadership, knowledge, skills, and values it seeks to develop in its graduates. And by developing management talent and improving management practices, MBA education provides value to organizations. Indeed, companies that take intellectual capital development seriously continue to find ample returns from their direct investment in business schools through recruitment and tuition support.

Quality Matters: It matters to Intel, FedEx, Lockheed Martin and Telephone Data Systems, which are just a few of the global companies that have become more conscious of the tuition reimbursement they are paying for and what they are getting in the quality of graduates in return. It matters to employees, too, because as The Chronicle of Higher Education reported and Intel discovered, employees with MBAs from AACSB-accredited schools were more likely to get promoted within the company.

According to a recent report by AACSB International, "Over the course of the last hundred years, business has been a driving force in shaping society and the catalyst behind extraordinary economic growth and opportunity. Business has spurred job creation, generated wealth, and improved the economic prospects for growing and increasingly diverse populations." LeClair adds that great management talent and practices have been integral to the success of nations in a global economy and quality schools of business have played no small part. They have educated generations of leaders capable of profound global achievements. Business students of today are taking heed—they seek nothing less than to change the world.

Editorial provided by AACSB International. AACSB International is a professional development association and accrediting body for business schools.

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Advanced Law Degrees:

What is a J.S.D., S.J.D. or D.C.L.?

You have received your Master of Laws (LL.M.) degree and want to pursue further academic study in the field of law. What is the next step? For students planning a career in academic or other work that emphasizes legal scholarship, the logical step may be to apply to a doctoral program.

Research and academic-based doctorate level degrees generally fall into four categories: (1) Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.S.D); (2) Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D.); (3) Doctor of Comparative Law (D.C.L.); and (4) Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). According to the American Bar Association, approximately 20 American law schools offer doctoral degrees in law. Most of these programs are very small and exclusive, limiting enrollment to usually no more than one or two "extraordinary" or "exceptional" candidates per year.

The application and degree requirements for these doctoral programs, however, can vary widely.

At the outset, most, if not all doctoral programs, require prior completion of an LL.M. program, or its equivalent (a Juris Master, Master of Comparative Law,or Master of Jurisprudence). Some law schools, however, limit their doctoral admissions to only those applicants who have enrolled in, or completed, their school's own LL.M. program. In other words, if you complete your masters at Law School X, you may not be eligible for admission to Law School Y for your doctorate. Applicants who are considering a doctorate are well advised to factor this potential limitation into their decision-making process when applying to masters programs.

A number of doctoral programs require each applicant to obtain the approval of a faculty member that he/she is willing to serve as the applicant's faculty advisor and dissertation committee chairperson before the applicant applies to the program. Thus, it is imperative that any potential doctoral candidate evaluate doctoral programs carefully, weighing specific area of academic interest against faculty specializations at each school. As an initial step, an applicant interested in researching and writing a dissertation should consider schools where there is a faculty member that has the same or similar interest or specialization. After narrowing down a list of potential schools, the applicant must engage in a certain amount of "self-marketing" to search for a faculty member at each school willing to support his or her doctoral application and candidacy.

Once accepted, some doctoral programs require the candidate to pursue additional course work, whereas others do not. The University of Pittsburgh School of Law J.S.D. program, for example, is a research degree and there is no formal requirement for candidates to pursue additional course work. Other schools, such as the University of Virginia and Georgetown University, require candidates to complete a certain number of credit hours in courses or seminars.

Most, if not all, doctoral programs require candidates to write a dissertation of publishable quality, that makes a significant, original contribution of long-term value to legal literature. In most programs, candidates must conduct their research under the close supervision of a full-time faculty member, a "faculty advisor." Often, the candidate's faculty advisor serves as chair of the candidate's dissertation committee (a dissertation committee usually has between three and four members). Some doctoral programs require candidates to pass a formal "oral examination" administered by the dissertation committee on the student's completed dissertation. Other schools require candidates to publicly defend the dissertation proposal, as well as the dissertation itself.

Most programs require the candidate to complete their degree within 2-5 years, with the first year or two, depending on the particular school's requirements, being "in residence." Often, tuition for the year(s) "in residence" is charged based on the same rate as that which is charged for students enrolled in that school's LL.M. program. Tuition beyond the year(s) "in residence" at some schools is charged based on a "full time dissertation credit rate," which is substantially less.

Few schools provide financial aid for doctoral studies. As financial aid is generally limited, some schools permit doctoral candidates to work part-time or full-time on-campus or off-campus upon a showing of need. For doctoral applicants with financial concerns, the availability of financial aid, grants or the ability to work are considerations that must be taken into consideration before applying to specific doctoral programs.

Editorial provided by Caroline S. West, Center for International Legal Education, University of Pittsburgh School of Law

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